7#,:KaFFG:GH*HHHH HIbIbItxHr"I J /J*J[F* JJ;mJJK-4JJJJJJ MODULE 3 - WHAT IS SIR-C/X-SAR? B) SIR-C/X-SAR SCIENCE Objectives: 1) Students will be able to list the five different scientific disciplines into which SIR-C/X-SAR investigations are divided. 2) Students will be able to identify the locations of at least three SIR-C/X-SAR sites on a world map and decide the main scientific discipline being investigated there. 3) Students will learn about the concept of Supersites and Backup Supersites. 4) Students will learn more details about the various scientific disciplines/studies to be addressed by the SIR-C/X-SAR mission, and how they fit into NASA's Mission to Planet Earth program. The SIR-C/X-SAR Science Team The SIR-C/X-SAR Science Team is made up of 52 scientists from around the world. These scientists presented plans to NASA to use data from SIR-C/X-SAR in their research. The final team was selected in 1988. Each SIR-C/X-SAR Science team member was selected to carry out a specific scientific investigation. Several central themes have emerged from the investigations that are central to the overall SIR-C/X-SAR mission. These themes are largely related to global cycles including: Oceans - ocean circulation patterns Ecosystems - the global carbon cycle Hydrology - the hydrologic cycle Geology - geologic processes including the study of ancient climates Rain and Clouds - air-sea interactions. A list of the Investigators, their institution, country of origin and field of research, can be found in Table 1 at the end of this section. SIR-C/X-SAR Supersites Of the more than 400 SIR-C/X-SAR sites, 34 have been chosen as Supersites and Backup Supersites. Supersite and Backup Supersites were selected by the SIR-C/X-SAR Science Team to represent different environments within each scientific discipline. These sites (Table 2) are the highest priority targets for the SIR-C/X-SAR mission. This means that if problems during the mission drastically reduce the ability to collect data, these sites will have the highest priority. In addition, Supersites and Backup Supersites are sites where more than one investigator may work together to provide an interdisciplinary look at one area. A complete list of all the SIR-C/X-SAR sites is included in Table 3 at the end of this section. The Supersites and Backup Supersites are also areas where intensive field work will occur before, during, and after the mission. The field work will include setting out corner reflectors/calibration devices for the over flight of SIR-C/X-SAR and completing "ground truth" studies before, during, and after the mission. Scientists record the locations of each measurement and use this information to interpret the final radar images. Ground truth measurements also describe areas for long term studies. Some typical ground measurements include: Ecology: tree geometry and density, crop type and distribution Geology: rock type and distribution, surface character (boulders, sand, etc.) Oceanography: wave height, wind direction Hydrology: soil moisture, snow thickness and extent About 50 hours of SIR-C/X-SAR data will be recorded onboard during each flight. In addition, a limited amount of data will be transmitted to ground receivers for near-real-time digital processing during the mission for key supersites around the world where interdisciplinary investigations are focused in a specific area. These supersites will receive priority for data acquisition during the mission and for data processing. Supersites from which data will be collected to address the global carbon and hydrologic cycles include tropical forests in the Amazon Basin, boreal forests in northern Michigan, and temperate forests in North Carolina. Supersites in which data will be collected to address the hydrologic cycle include areas of Brazil, Italy, and the midwestern United States. Paleoclimate and geologic process studies will be focused on arid areas in North Africa, semi-arid areas in the southwest U.S., tectoncially-active areas in the south central Andes, and the volcanically active Galapagos Islands. Oceanography experiments will be focused on the Gulf Stream, the East North Atlantic, and in the Southern Ocean. Corner reflectors and other devices for calibration will be deployed at supersites in southern Germany, The Netherlands, and Australia, as well as at other supersites. Relevant data, including the geographic locations of corner reflectors at the supersites and ground truth data, will be archived for use with SIR-C/X-SAR data by future investigators. Table 2: SIR-C/X-SAR Supersites DISCIPLINE  SUPERSITES BACKUP SUPERSITESCalibrationFlevoland, The Netherlands Kerang, Australia Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany Western Pacific Matera, Italy Sarobetsu, Japan Palm Valley, Australia Eastern Pacific OceanEcologyManaus, Brazil Raco, Michigan Duke Forest, North CarolinaAmazon Survey, Brazil Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Canada Howland, Maine Altona, ManitobaElectromagnetic TheorySafsaf, SudanGeologyGalapagos Islands Sahara Desert, Africa Death Valley, California Andes Mountains, Chile Hawaii Saudi Arabia Hotien East, ChinaHydrologyChickasha, Oklahoma tztal, Australia Bebedouro, Brazil Montespertoli, Italy Mahantango, Pennsylvania Mammoth Mountain, California OceanographyEast-North Atlantic Ocean Gulf Stream, Atlantic Ocean Southern Ocean Equatorial Pacific North Sea   Location of the SIR-C Supersites SIR-C/X-SAR Science Objectives The sensitivity of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to surface and, in some cases, subsurface geometry and electrical properties can provide information about land and ocean surfaces and vegetation cover that is complementary to measurements made by sensors operating in the visible, near infrared, and thermal infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. SAR provides its own illumination and can therefore produce reliable multitemporal data independent of weather or solar illumination, through all seasons, and at any latitude. Radar waves penetrate clouds and, under certain conditions, vegetation canopies, ice, and dry alluvial or aeolian soil, making it possible to explore near-surface zones that are not accessible with other remote sensing techniques. It should be noted that 3-dimensional features (e.g. mountains) are enhanced, in comparison with optical imaging sensors, due to the side-looking illumination and imaging geometry. The SIR-C/X-SAR mission extends the capability of an aircraft campaign by providing regional scale data over a short time period. The mission design also enables areas to be imaged at multiple incidence angles, an important parameter for studying many land and ocean processes. The extensive ground truth measurement campaigns will provide critical data to be used in development of algorithms needed to produce data products for studying global change issues. By having multiple flights, insights on seasonal variations for the key science issues will also be provided. Such long-term development studies will be critical for developing the EOS SAR requirements and mission design. Earlier Imaging Radar Missions SIR-C/X-SAR is currently scheduled to be flown on the Space Shuttle three times to cover three seasons: Spring, Summer and Winter in the Northern Hemisphere. The three flights will differ from the earlier missions SIR-A and SIR-B in that (1) SIR-C/X-SAR will be the primary payload, (2) the three-mission experiment will provide a unique look at change in the radar signatures over seasons, and (3) there will be round-the-clock observations of the Earth by the shuttle crew. The crew onboard the SIR-C/X-SAR flight will have an opportunity to help explore the relationships between the radar data and weather conditions beyond what is possible by the investigators on the ground. The first Shuttle Imaging Radar, SIR-A, was flown in November 1981; this was the second flight of the shuttle and the first scientific payload. There were two crew members onboard. For the early flights, experiments on board the Shuttle did not involve any crew interaction. The handheld photographs (HHPs) acquired on the mission were assessed along with the SIR-A radar data. In several cases, coincident photographs and radar data were obtained which prompted the Science Team for the next SIR experiment, SIR-B in 1984, to pursue the use of shuttle-based observations obtained in parallel with the radar data acquisitions. Pre-mission planning and crew training prepared the astronauts for acquiring photographs of the SIR-B sites as time permitted during the mission. A few observations made by the crew had a very significant effect on the results of some the the SIR-B investigations. A photograph of the southern ocean ice was used to determine the location and concentration of thin first-year ice and open water which was critical in the interpretation of the radar data. A map of geologic structure was generated from a stereo pair obtained over the Andes mountains and used in the interpretation of the radar data which showed unique geological structures. Crew Observations Future science observations by the shuttle crew include two aspects: photographic documentation of the sites on a routine basis and visual observations of features of interest which are recorded as notes, voiced down to the operations center during the mission, and discussed with the science investigators after the mission. These observations may or may not be backed up with photographic documentation. The observations describe interactions of the atmosphere, oceans and land surface, and identify unpredicted or transient phenomena for potential future imaging. The primary camera used for Earth observations is a Hasselblad 70 mm camera. Accompanying equipment includes three lenses (50, 100, and 250 mm), a data link to record time, filters, film magazines and various types of film. The 100 mm lens offers spatial resolution similar to the Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) (80 m) and the 250 mm lens offers Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) resolution (30 m). With the 250 mm lens, the Hasselblad is capable of obtaining photographs at the same resolution as the SAR images but with a much larger field of view. A Linhof Aero Technika and a Nikon F4 35 mm camera are also available. The Linhof uses 5 inch film and is useful for photographing large areas with resolutions similar to the Hasselblad. Lenses include a 90 and a 250 mm. The Nikon F4 is provided with an interchangeable 35-70 mm zoom lens, and 28, 200, and 300 mm autofocus lenses. The shuttle provides a number of unique optical perspectives. A non-polar shuttle orbit provides an opportunity to obtain variable sun-angle photography over the duration of the mission. The current polar orbiting platforms (SPOT, Landsat, AVHRR, etc.) are all in sun-synchronous orbits therefore preventing acquisition of variable sun angle data. From the shuttle's lower inclination orbits, the complete range of sun angles from dawn to dusk are available; all are useful for observations, although low sun angles are particularly useful for highlighting subtle topographic or roughness features. Sun glint is the reflection from the ocean surface from the sun; it represents scattering in the forward direction and is a function of the sun angle and the amount of small scale surface roughness. Wind stress, waves, and currents control the ocean patterns that may be observed in sun glint. When the ocean is calm, the sun glint is bright and the area of bright ocean is small. When the ocean is rougher, the scattered light is more diffuse and the bright area is enlarged by wave facets that produce reflections from many different directions. Thus the sun glint can be related to physical phenomena that roughen and calm the ocean's surface such as wind stress, wave-current interactions, and biological or chemical properties of the surface of the ocean which can create surface slicks. In a similar fashion, radar energy is scattered off the ocean surface, in this case in the backscattered direction. The rougher the ocean the greater the radar return. During the SIR-C/ X-SAR mission, the crew will be on the look out for sun glint and will take photographs of this phenomenon. Dynamic Surface Phenomena Although the radar can penetrate clouds and "see" the Earth's surface day or night and in all seasons, the radar is very sensitive to the seasonal and meteorological (weather) state of the surface at the time of imaging. Changes in the seasonal state of the surface can change the radar backscatter by up to 10 dB. In addition, clouds will not only affect the state of the surface as viewed by the radar, but may attenuate the radar beam by several dB, especially at the shorter X- and C-band wavelengths. Observations of cloud location and type are readily made from space. For SIR-C/X-SAR, observations of the atmosphere and surface at the same time will be very important in understanding the radar observations for a site, especially when comparing results obtained at different times during the mission. In addition, radar data interpretation must be done in the context of the Earth's surface state at the time of imaging. SIR-C/X-SAR Science Themes The central themes of the SIR-C/X-SAR Science Team are examined here in more detail. i) Oceans How waves move through the oceans and how the air and sea interact with each other play a major role in determining the earths climate. The ocean stores heat and energy and air-sea interactions move this heat and energy around the earth. The Gulf Stream, off the east coast of North America is a good example of how heat is moved around the globe; this major current moves heat from the equatorial region into the northern Atlantic allowing tropical plants, such as palm trees, to grow along the southern coast of Ireland. SIR-C/X-SAR will image large surface and internal waves, wind motion at the ocean surface, and ocean current motion. These data will assist scientists in understanding how the Earths climate is moderated by the ocean. In shallow areas, radar images can be related to the topography of the ocean bottom. Natural and man-induced oil spills can also be imaged and monitored using imaging radar. The distribution of sea ice largely determines the heat and water balance near the Earth's poles. Imaging radar can be used to study the seasonal distribution of sea ice. Although SIR-C/X-SAR's orbit will not reach the poles, sea ice images will be collected over the Sea of Okhotsk in the eastern Soviet Union, and the Labrador sea off the coast of Newfoundland. In the polar regions, sea ice is in constant motion, particularly along the ice margins, which are the regions most likely to be viewed by SIR-C/X-SAR in its 57 orbit inclination. The concentrations of open water, first year (thin) ice and multiyear (thicker) ice, as well as the location of the ice margin and the location and concentration of ice bergs will change from day-to-day throughout the mission. The interaction of the open ocean and the ice at the ice margins is of particular interest; these regions often contain extensive spiral eddies. The ocean is a very dynamic system and is strongly influenced by the atmosphere. The ocean surface temperature also has a significant effect on clouds. Radar is sensitive to the manifestations of this dynamic air-sea system, specifically to capillary and gravity waves, internal waves, mesoscale and sub-mesoscale (spiral) eddies, current boundaries, bathymetric features (and tides), ocean fronts, sediment fluxes, island wakes, currents in tidal inlets and shallow areas, and convergent surface currents in upwelling regions. In addition, the radar return is sensitive to oil slicks and possibly phytoplankton blooms which may influence the roughness of the ocean's surface. Our current understanding of the geophysical information contained in radar imagery of the ocean surface is often limited due to the lack of other data describing the state of the ocean at the time of data collection. Documentation of ocean state in parallel with SIR-C/X-SAR may provide key information needed to evaluate the radar ocean imagery. In addition, shuttle-based photography of the ocean experiment sites will indicate the location of investigators' ships involved in surface truth data collection relative to the radar swath and ocean features. Observations and photography of regional ocean systems and clouds will provide the regional context within which the radar swath is located. ii) Ecosystems Ecologists study life on earth and how different life forms interact with each other and their local environment. SIR-C/X-SAR will collect ecology data over tropical forests including the Amazon basin in South America, and over temperate forests in North Carolina and Michigan, and in Central Europe. SIR-C/X-SAR images will be used to study: land use vegetation type and extent effects of fires, flooding, and clear cutting The three frequencies that are available on SIR-C/X-SAR interact with vegetation on different scales providing three views of the forest. SIR-C/X-SAR data will improve our understanding of forest geometry. By studying changes in forests between missions, scientists can assess the effects that changing environmental conditions and land use has on forests and in turn, on the global carbon cycle. The earth's vegetated surface as viewed by SAR varies significantly with weather conditions and the surface cover. Recent results of experiments to understand the day-night variations in the radar backscatter of forests indicate there is a strong diurnal (day/night) signature related to the dielectric constant (electrical property) which in turn is related to plant water status. When clouds pass over vegetation and cut off solar energy, the photosynthetic process slows down or stops, water potential rises and the dielectric constant changes. On a longer term basis, changes in the weather conditions and forest vegetation state over the duration of the shuttle mission and from mission to mission will produce significant changes in the radar backscatter. Specific phenomena which may be documented through visual observations include snow existence and extent, flood existence and extent (through sun glint photography), leaf on/off and/or leaf color (green or yellow/red), deforestation extent and vegetation vigor or greenness which is related to water status. In addition, acquisition of radar imagery of forests during and after forest fires would provide a valuable "target of opportunity" data set. Depending on the season, the probability of fire occurrence in particular regions will determine specific areas to monitor intensively. iii) Hydrology Hydrologists study the global water cycle focusing on processes that occur on land. (As opposed to Oceanographers who focus on the worlds oceans.) In addition to water in swamps, lakes, rivers, and mud puddles, large amounts of water are stored as soil moisture and in vegetation; this is an important part of the global water cycle and plays a major role in surface moisture and global energy fluxes. The amount of water a surface or material contains in part determines its electrical properties. Since radar is sensitive to the electrical properties of a surface it is useful for measuring soil and vegetative moisture over large areas and how these vary between seasons. SIR-C/X-SAR hydrology investigations will be focused on Brazil, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Italy. Radar data from these sites will be used to determine soil moisture patterns. These studies will help develop ways to estimate soil moisture and evaporation rate over large areas. This information will be valuable input to large-scale, regional hydrologic models. Likewise, in mountainous and high latitude regions, seasonal snow cover is a major storage component in the hydrologic cycle. Spring snow melt often dominates the annual runoff cycle and resulting water supply, ground water and reservoir recharge rates. For many areas, long-term or ground-based snow cover data do not exist and remotely sensed data provide the only way to acquire this information. SIR-C/X-SAR will acquire data on snow cover over Mammoth Lakes, California; radar data on snow and glacial cover will be acquired over the Austrian Alps, the Himalayas and the Patagonian district in Southern Chile which contains the largest modern glaciers and ice fields in South America. X-band data will be useful for determining snow type, while L- and C-band will be used for estimating snow volume. Wetlands are sources of many trace gases that are important parts of the global atmospheric cycle. Wetlands are also especially vulnerable to human alteration. SIR-C/X-SAR will be used to determine the extent and limits of selected wetlands areas, as well as their changing conditions. The hydrologic state of the earth's surface will vary significantly over the duration of the mission and from mission to mission due to precipitation (including snow) and the ensuing dry-down. Although it is not possible to observe either rain or soil moisture visually from the shuttle, it is possible to observe clouds which could potentially be raining by identifying cloud type, and lightning, which is directly correlated to rain. This knowledge is important for rain and snow experiments. It is also important for other experimenters requiring calibrated radar data as the existence of snow and/or rain within the experimental area may influence the radar backscatter. iv) Geology Geologists study the present surface of the Earth and by looking at older rocks, how it came to be and how it may have looked in the past. SIR-C/X-SAR data will be useful for mapping geologic structures and variations in rock types over large areas. These data will be especially useful in areas of heavy vegetation and continuous cloud cover where field work is often difficult. Long radar wavelengths (24 cm: L-band on SIR-C) can penetrate below the surface in extremely dry desert areas. This allows scientists to map geologic structures buried under the sand and to identify ancient stream systems. Discovery of ancient stream systems in the Sahara have had important implications for past climate histories and also for present possible sources of water. The SAR is sensitive to scatterers (sand grains, rocks, etc.) that are approximately the size of SIR-C/X-SAR's radar wavelengths (3, 6 and 24 cm). Thus a variety of surfaces, from sand to rough lava flows, can be mapped with imaging radar. These different wavelengths allow various geologic processes to be studied including soil/sediment erosion, transportation, deposition, and degradation. These processes have an impact on sedimentation in rivers, streams, river deltas and coastal environments and affect the amount of land available for food production. The radar's sensitivity to surface roughness allows scientists to study the history of past climate change and the relative age of surfaces because as land surfaces age and are exposed to weathering, they generally change their roughness characteristics. Although the geologic state of the surface is unlikely to change during the SIR-C/X-SAR mission or even from mission to mission, the state of the surface in terms of vegetation and snow cover will change and these will strongly influence the interpretation of the radar imagery for geologic purposes. In addition to monitoring meteorological conditions, shuttle-based photographs for geology experiments with SIR-C/X-SAR will provide information on the geologic setting and regional context of the radar imagery. Low sun angle photography not available through SPOT or Landsat will provide a unique opportunity for viewing subtle surface features to which the radar is sensitive; these photographs will be particularly valuable in understanding the mechanisms of subsurface imaging of ancient river systems in northeastern Africa as they will highlight surface roughness patterns which may be confused with subsurface radar signatures. Stereo photography will provide a three-dimensional perspective of a region. Monitoring of active volcanoes during the mission may provide an opportunity to obtain radar imagery of erupting volcanoes and/or fresh lava flows. The likelihood of finding an active volcano during the SIR-C/X-SAR flight is very high. Active volcanoes are observed on approximately 50% of all shuttle flights. v) Rain and Clouds Throughout the history of radar, one of the main selling points has been its ability to "see through clouds". Recently, however, clouds have become an important factor in the future analysis of SIR-C/X-SAR data due to three factors: (1) At X-band (3 cm) and possibly at C-band (6 cm), clouds and associated rain may attenuate (reduce the strength of) or scatter radar signals significantly. In addition, rain occurring at the time of data acquisition will change the dielectric properties of the surface soil and vegetation, thus affecting the backscatter. (2) Clouds indicate wind direction, thermal boundaries and storm systems associated with ocean surface state. In particular, cloud patterns in the southern ocean can be used to predict the position of convective storms thus providing a means of focusing data collection for the southern ocean wave experiment. (3) Clouds limit incident radiation on the Earth's surface and therefore change the water status of the surface vegetation. In particular, clouds decrease or stop transpiration which in turn changes plant water potential, dielectric constant and radar backscatter. There are two experiments planned for SIR-C/X-SAR to image rain. These investigations require imaging of rain systems and therefore decisions on whether or not to take data will have to be made during the mission. The scientists responsible for those experiments have identified areas in the Western Pacific ocean, the "rainiest place on earth", as having the best chance for imaging rain. Table 1: SIR-C/X-SAR Science Team Investigator Affiliation Investigation W. Alpers University of Hamburg, Germany Ocean Wave Spectra R. Beal Applied Physics Lab, USA Ocean Wave Transport R. Brown Canada Center for Remote Sensing Vegetation Characteristics P. Canuti CETEM, Italy Estimates of Soil Erosion R. Cordey Marconi Research Center, England Agriculture and Forestry E. Dabbagh King Fahd Univ. of Petrol and Geology and Minerals, Saudi Arabia Hydrology F. Davis University of California, Biomass Modeling Santa Barbara, USA J. Dozier University of California, Snow Properties Santa Barbara, USA E. Engman NASA/Goddard, USA Hydrology T. Farr Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA Climate Change P. Flament University of Hawaii, USA Ocean Wave Transport A. Freeman Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA Calibration M. Fujita Communications Research Calibration Laboratory, Japan A. Gillespie University of Washington, USA Alluvial Fan Evolution R. Goldstein Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA Interferometry R. Greeley Arizona State University, USA Aeolian Roughness H. Guo Inst. for Remote Sensing Radar Penetration Applications, China F. Heel DLR, Germany Calibration B. Isacks Cornell University, USA Topography and Climate A. Jameson Applied Research Precipitation Corporation, USA E. Kasischke Environmental Institute of Biomass of Pine Michigan, USA Forests G. Keyte Royal Aerospace Ocean Waves Establishment, England J. Kong Massachusetts Institute of Polarimetric Technology, USA Mapping F. Kruse University of Colorado, USA Lithologic Mapping T. Le Toan Centre dEtudes Spat. Biomass of Forests des Rayonnements, France F. Li Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA\ Precipitation F. Lozano-Garcia National University Rain Forest of Mexico, Mexico Dynamics J. McCauley Northern Arizona University, USA Saharan Drainages J. Melack University of California, Tropical River Santa Barbara, USA Floodplains F. Monaldo Applied Physics Laboratory, USA Ocean Wave Spectra D. Montgomery US Naval Observatory, USA Oceanography R. Moore University of Kansas, USA Calibration P. Mouginis-Mark University of Hawaii, USA Basaltic Shield Volcanoes P. Murino Inst. U. Nobile, Italy Volcanology J. Paris California State University, Habitat Change Fresno, USA K. Paw U University of California, Davis, USA Canopy Structure K. Pope Geo Eco Arc Research, USA Wetland Structure K. Raney RADARSAT, Canada Ocean Physics J. Ranson NASA/Goddard, USA Forest Ecosystems C. Rapley University College, London, UK Altimetry H. Rott University of Innsbruck, Austria Glacier Properties G. Schaber US Geological Survey, USA Radar Penetration J. Soares INPE, Brazil Hydrology R. Stern University of Texas at Dallas, USA Structural Geology G. Taylor University of New South Groundwater Wales, Australia Management F. Ulaby University of Michigan, USA Ecosystem Processes S. Vetrella University of Naples, Italy Calibration D. Vidal-Madjar CNET/CRPE, France Hydrology J. Wang NASA/Goddard, USA Hydrology R. Winter DLR, Germany Forestry C. Wood University of North Dakota, USA Volcanism & Tectonism H. Zebker Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA Polarimetric Modeling. Table 3: SIR-C/X-SAR Sites Supersites are designated by the second letter (S) in the site identification number (e.g. CS1 for Flevoland in the Netherlands, which is a calibration supersite). Backup supersites are designated by the second letter (B) in the site identification number (e.g. EB3 for Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, which is an ecology supersite). Site IDSite NameLatitudeLongitudePICalibrationC01 Akita, Japan 39.70140.08 FujitaC02 Alberta, Canada 54.00-115.00 JamesonC03 Alice Springs Australia -23.5134.00 RapleyC04 Amazon C, Brazil 0-70.00 MooreC05 Bari, Italy 41.0716.52 VetrellaC06 Beam Alignment 00 FreemanC07 Cape Canaveral 28.00-80.50 LiC08 Darwin, Australia -12.28130.50 JamesonC09 Deep Space Network 43, Australia -35.40148.98 FreemanC10 Deep Space Network 14, Goldstone 35.43-116.89 GoldsteinC11 Deep Space Network 63, Spain 40.43-4.25 FreemanC12 Izuoshima Island, Japan 34.72139.40 FujitaC13 Kashima, Japan 35.95140.67 FujitaC14 Kauai, HI 22.00-159.30 JamesonC15 Kennedy Space Center 28.24-80.36 JamesonC16 Kwajalein 8.75168.00 JamesonC17 Mt. Fugendake, Japan 32.75130.15 FujitaC18 Mt. Fuji, Japan 35.37138.73 FujitaC19 N. Death Valley, CA/NV 36.85-116.97 FreemanC20-C24 NW Simpson A0-A4, Australia -24.25136.50 RapleyC25 Ohgata-Mura, Japan 40.00140.00 FujitaC26 Phuket, Thailand 8.0098.30 JamesonC27 Rogers Lake, CA 34.95-117.83 FreemanC28 Rutherford-Appleton Labs 51.20-0.40 JamesonC29 Soda Lake, CA 35.08-116.08 FreemanC30 Thailand 15.75101.00 JamesonC31 Tsukuba, Japan 36.03140.10 FujitaC32 Wallops Island 37.87-75.38 JamesonCB1 Matera, Italy 41.0716.52 BSMateraCB2 Sarobetsu, Japan 45.12141.70 BSJapanCB3 Waterhouse, Australia -23.954132.712 BSPalmCBA-CBI Eastern Pacific 1-9 22.50-115.00 BSEPacCS1 Flevoland, Netherlands 52.275.35 SSFlevCS2 Kerang, Australia -36.04144.04 SSKerangCS3 Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany 48.0811.28 SSOberCSA-X, CSa-b Western Pacific 1-28 15.00105.00 SSWPacCX1-9, CXA-C System Performance -45.2890.89 CXD Equatorial Pacific Survey -30.37193.31 CXE-G System Performance -28.92191.25 CXH Amazon Calibration -6.41298.60 CXI-T System Performance -16.7653.44 EcologyE02 Altamaha, Georgia 31.02-81.85 Melack E05 Amazon Forest, Brazil -2.40-59.80 Paris E06 Nelson House, Manitoba 55.90-98.46 Boreas E07 Apalachicola, Florida 30.00-85.00 Melack E08 Augsburg, Germany 48.5010.80 Winter E12 Ethiopia 15.0042.50 Winter E13 Chimalapas, Mexico 17.21-94.00 Lozano-Garcia E14 Borden, Canada 44.32-80.93 Paw U E15 Calakmul, Yucatan 18.28-89.75 Lozano-Garcia E17 Darwin, Australia -12.45132.56 Taylor E18 Davis, California 38.37-121.77 Paw U E19 Etosha National Park, Namibia -18.5015.50 Reichle E20 Freiburg, Germany 48.207.67 Winter E21 Gujarat, India 22.0072.00 Winter E22 Gippsland, Australia -37.80147.20 Taylor E23 Kruger National Park, South Africa -23.6231.50 Reichle E24 Haryana, India 29.5076.50 Winter E25 Harz, Germany 51.8010.58 Winter E27 Kehlheim, Germany 48.9011.83 Winter E29 Kourou, Fr. Guyana 5.25-52.75 Le Toan E30 La Victoria, Mexico 14.82-92.50 Pope E31 Landes, France 44.50-0.66 Le Toan E32 Luquillo, Puerto Rico 18.29-65.81 Paris E33 Mabira, Uganda 0.4732.78 Paris E34 Mack Lake, Michigan 44.58-83.97 Ulaby/Dobson E36 Montes Azules, Yucatan 16.47-91.12 Lozano-Garcia E39 Okefenokee, Georgia 30.75-82.25 Melack E40 Orono, Maine 45.20-68.74 PawU E41 Ouango, West Africa 18.00-2.70 Le Toan E46 Oxford County, Ontario 42.80-80.70 Brown E48 Paracou, Fr.Guyana 5.25-52.92 Le Toan E49 Pellston, Michigan 45.53-84.70 Ulaby E50 Pines Line, US 33.45-86.82 Kasischke E51 Pooncarri, Australia -33.70143.05 Taylor E52 Porto Velho, Brazil 9.50-64.00 Winter E55 Rio Hondo, Belize 18.14-88.67 Pope E57 Salsipuedes, Yucatan 21.47-87.07 Pope E58 Chulchaca, Yucatan 20.86-90.20 Pope E59 Schwandorf, Germany 49.2512.33 Winter E61 Shasta, California 41.33-122.00 Davis E63 Ste. Elie, Fr. Guyana 5.26-53.17 Le Toan E65 Superior, Minnesota 48.10-92.00 Ranson E66 Thetford, England 52.480.57 Cordey E67 Voyageurs, Minnesota 48.33-92.83 Ranson E68 Terminos, Mexico 18.49-91.80 Pope E69 Weipa, Australia -12.92141.75 Taylor E77 Whitecourt, Canada 54.50-115.67 Brown E78 Southeast, U.S. 34.00-83.84 Kasischke EB1 Howland, Maine 45.20-68.75 BSHow EB2 Altona, Manitoba 49.10-97.60 BSAltona EB3 Prince Albert, Saskatchewan 53.86-106.16 BSPrin EB4 Pantanal, Brazil -18.85-57.00 BSAmazSurv EB5 Sena Madureira, Brazil -9.00-68.40 BSAmazSurv ES0 Manaus Anavilhanas, Brazil -2.72-60.75 SSManA ES1 Manaus Cabaliana, Brazil -3.33-61.00 SSManC ES2 Manaus CSAP, Brazil -2.40-59.80 SSManS ES5 Duke Forest, North Carolina 36.00-79.00 SSDuke ES6 Raco, Michigan 46.39-84.88 SSRaco EX1-9, EXA-D Sahel 11.48352.47 GeologyG01 Aksayqin Basin, China 34.7580.00 Farr G02 Amboy, CA 34.52-115.80 Greeley G03 Big'at Sayyarim, Israel (2) 29.8434.86 Greeley G04 Bighorn Basin, Wyoming 44.40-108.25 Kruse G05 C. Italy/S. Germany 45.5011.50 Murino G06 Campania, Italy 40.5013.75 Murino G07 Canon City/Cripple Crk, CO 38.50-105.25 Kruse G08 Kliuchevskoi, Kamchatka 56.18160.78 Mouginis-Mark G09 Confidence Mill Playa, CA 35.84-116.55 Greeley G0a Judean desert, Israel 31.7735.23 Elachi G0b Holot Haluza, Israel 31.2034.42 Greeley G0c Sebkra Merkerrhane, Algeria 26.001.50 McCauley G0d-G0g Namib 1-4, So. Africa -23.0014.70 Schaber G0h Quito, Ecuador -0.25-77.75 Isacks G0i Chulcanas, Ecudaor -5.00-79.25 Isacks G0j Santa Rosa, Peru -14.50-70.40 Isacks G0k Charana, Bolivia -17.25-69.00 Isacks G0l Salar de Uyni, Bolivia -21.00-68.00 Isacks G0m Cerro del Taro, Chile -29.00-70.00 Isacks G0n Cerro Aconcagua, Argentina -32.00-70.00 Isacks G0o Los Andes, Chile -32.25-70.50 Isacks G0p Esquel, Argentina -43.00-72.00 Isacks G0q Holot Agur, Israel31.0234.41GreeleyG10 Cooper Creek, Australia -27.25142.00 Taylor G11 Cotopaxi, Ecuador -0.65-78.43 Wood G12 Death Valley, CA 36.22-117.28 Gillespie G13 Dumont Sandsheet 35.65-116.29 Greeley G14 Dun Huang, China 39.0094.50 Farr G15 Fish Lake Valley, NV 37.74-118.06 Gillespie G16 Foulum, Denmark 56.519.65 Greeley G17 Fowler's Gap, Australia -31.08141.67 Taylor G18 Gobabeb, Namib -23.5015.15 Greeley G19 Golden Canyon Fan 36.39-116.85 Greeley G20 Ha Meshar, Israel 30.4334.94 Greeley G21 Hotien Northwest, China 37.2578.67 Farr G22 Iglesiente-Sardinia 39.328.52 Murino G23 Indian Subcontinent 28.5072.75 Schaber G24 Jornada, SW US/Mex 33.22-106.75 Schaber G25 SW Kalahari -25.5021.75 Schaber\013G26 Karakax Valley, China 36.2978.75 Farr G27 Kit Fox Fan, CA 36.66-117.05 Greeley G28 Kuwait29.5047.17 Greeley G29 Kyle Cyn/Sheep Range, NV 36.56-115.53 Gillespie G30 Lago Albano 41.7412.66 Murino G31 Lake Eyre, Australia -28.00136.50 Taylor G32 Lucerne Dry Lake 34.56-116.96 Greeley G33 Lunar Lake Playa 38.40-116.00 Greeley G34 Tolbachik, Kamchatka 55.93160.47 Mouginis-Mark G35 Mishor Paran, Israel 30.0734.77 Greeley G36 Namib, So. Africa (ctr pt) -23.5015.20 Schaber G37 Navajo Res, SW US/Mex 36.00-111.00 Schaber G38 Northern Andes 0.85-77.47 Wood G39 Northern Andes Arc 0.75-77.32 Wood G40 Bezymianny, Kamchatka 56.07160.72 Mouginis-Mark G41 Owens Valley, CA 36.79-118.14 Gillespie G42 Pisgah, CA 34.73-116.40 Greeley G43 Reunion Island -21.1555.43 Mouginis-Mark G44 Ruiz, Colombia 4.88-75.37 Wood G45 Salt Wells Flats 36.05-116.84 Greeley G46 Salton Sea 33.21-115.85 Greeley G47 Silurian Lake 35.35-116.17 Greeley G48 Silver Lake 35.33-116.13 Greeley G49 Sonora, Mexico 29.75-109.75 Kruse G50 Sonoran Des, SW US/Mex 32.50-113.50 Schaber G51 Sudan 20.0035.00 Stern G52-G56 Sudan A0-A4 20.0034.50 Stern G57 Sudan, Kabous Ophiolite 11.6731.25 Stern G58 Sudan, Nakasib Suture 19.6736.67 Stern G59 Sudan, Wadi Halfa 21.5031.00 Stern G60 Trail Canyon Fan, CA 36.31-116.90 Greeley G61 Tsondab Flats, Namib -23.8015.08 Greeley G62 Karymsky, Kamchatka 54.07159.60 Mouginis-Mark G63 Fort Flatters, Sahara 23.002.50 Schaber G64 Aouelloul, Mauritania (N Africa) 20.25-12.68 Greeley G65 Stauning, Denmark 55.938.43 Greeley G66 Biq'at Mahmal, Israel 30.6534.93 Greeley G67 Holot Shunera, Israel 30.9534.65 Greeley G68 Roter Kamm, Namibia (S Africa) -27.7616.30 Greeley G69 Temimichat-Ghallaman, Mauritania 24.25-9.65 Greeley G70 Tenoumer, Mauritania (N Africa) 22.92-10.40 Greeley G71 Wolf Creek, Australia -19.30127.77 Greeley G72 Vesuvio, Italy 40.8214.42 Murino G73 Phlaegrean Fields, Italy 40.8314.17 Murino G74 Eastern Desert of Egypt 25.5033.65 Murino G75 N Grapevine Mtns 1, CA 37.20-117.46 Kruse G76 Cuprite, NV 37.54-117.18 Kruse G77 N Grapevine Mtns 2, CA 37.10-117.46 Kruse G78 Ubehebe Crater, CA 37.00-117.46 Kruse G79 Grapevine Mtns, CA 36.75-117.00 Kruse G80 Tucki Mtns/Fan, CA 36.50-117.75 Kruse G81 Black Mtns, CA 36.25-117.75 Kruse G82 Altai, China 46.0090.50 Guo G83 Hainan, China 19.00109.50 Guo G84 Alashan, China 40.00105.00 Guo G85 Beijing, China 40.50116.50 Guo G86 Changzhou, China 32.00120.00 Guo G87 Alishan, China 23.50121.00 Guo G88 Condobolin, Australia -32.90146.70 Taylor G89 El Oued, Sahara 34.718.50 Schaber G90 Melrhir, Algeria 34.666.26 Schaber G91 Monastir, Tunisia 35.6010.64 Schaber G92 Kharga, Sahara 19.3125.52 McCauley G93 Wadi Tafassasset, Central Sahara 20.879.96 McCauley G94 Tafassasset/Azouak 16.333.87 Schaber G95 Chicxulub, Mexico 21.27-89.60 Elachi G96 Phuum Voeene, Cambodia 14.00106.50 Elachi G97 Dandan-Uilik 37.6080.73 Elachi G98 Shisr-Ubar, Oman 18.2553.65 Elachi G99 Turkmenistan, China 38.3061.20 ElachiGB1 Hawaii 19.35-155.33 BSHawa GB2 Hotien East, China 36.8380.75 BSHot GBA-GBE Saudi Arabia A (1) 0-4 23.5251.21 BSSaudi GBF-GBJ Saudi Arabia A (2) 0-4 28.9239.94 BSSaudi GBK-GBO Saudi Arabia B (1) 0-4 19.0847.96 BSSaudi GBP-GBT Saudi Arabia B (2) 0-4 21.5257.00 BSSaudi GBU-GBY Saudi Arabia C (1) 0-4 19.7848.92 BSSaudi GBZ, GBa-d Saudi Arabia C (2) 0-4 26.5645.10 BSSaudi GBe-GBi Saudi Arabia D (1) 0-4 20.5548.27 BSSaudi GS1 Galapagos Islands -0.16-91.27 SSGalap GS2 Stovepipe Wells Fan, CA 36.64-117.06 SSDeaV GSJ Puerto Aisen, Chile -46.00-73.00 SSAndes GSK Cerro Cumbrera, Chile -47.50-73.00 SSAndes GSL Cerro Laukaru, Chile -48.94-73.15 SSAndes GSb Tilemsi, Sahara 20.000 SSSah GSc Fort Zinder, Sahara 20.005.00 SSSah GSd Lake Chad, Sahara 20.0010.00 SSSah GSe Sahara 4 20.0015.00 SSSah GSf Siwa/Largeau, Sahara 20.0020.00 SSSah GSg Bir Misaha, Sahara 20.0025.00 SSSah GSh Dongola, Sahara 20.0030.00 SSSahHydrologyH01 Bonn, Germany 50.826.85 Canuti H03 Schorfheide, Germany 53.0813.73 Canuti H04 Emerald Lake 36.60-118.68 Dozier H05 Fresno California 37.00-119.50 Wang H06 Grossglockner 47.1012.70 Rott H07 Himalaya 2 32.0077.50 Canuti H08 Khumba Himalaya 28.2286.82 Dozier H09 Konza 39.06-96.56 Engman H10 Konza 39.08-96.56 Wang H11 Near ERS-1 SAR calib site 46.86-0.62 Vidal-Madjar H12 Otrepo' Pavese 45.059.25 Canuti H13 Orgeval Watershed 48.853.12 Vidal-Madjar H14 Salzgitter, Germany 52.4510.52 Canuti H15 San Joaquin Ridge 37.62-119.03 Dozier H16 Tien Shan 43.0087.25 Dozier H17 Uelzen 52.8510.54 Canuti H18 Weissfluhjoch 46.839.78 Dozier HB0-HB4 Mahantango A0-A4, Penn. 40.70-76.58 BSMahn HB5 Mammoth Mtn 37.50-119.00 BSMamm HS1 Bebedouro, Brazil -9.08-40.28 SSBebe HS2 Chickasha, OK 34.92-98.02 SSChick HS3-HS7 Montespertoli A0-A4, Italy 43.5511.25 SSMont HS8 Otztal, Austrian Alps (1) 46.8010.80 SSOtzl Electromagnetic TheoryMS1 Safsaf, Egypt/Sudan 22.1829.79 SSSafOceanographyN01 CA/OR Coast 38.00-124.00 Flament N02 East Australian Current -32.50153.00 Raney N03 English Channel 52.002.00 Keyte N04 Blue Hawaii 20.00-160.00 Montgomery N05 Gulf of Genoa 44.209.00 Alpers N06-10 Gulf of Mexico 0-4 26.75-87.50 Montgomery N14 Gulf of St. Lawrence 46.75-71.00 Montgomery N17-N21 Juan de Fuca Strait A0-A4 48.50-126.00 Raney N35-N39 NE Pacific Ocean A0-A4 55.00-140.00 Montgomery N41 Netherlands A 52.504.30 Keyte N42 Netherlands B 52.503.75 Keyte N43 Norfolk Is. -29.02167.57 Montgomery N44 North Sea East 56.008.00 Johannessen N45 North Sea Platform 54.707.17 Alpers N46 Oslo, Norway 59.5010.50 Montgomery N48-N52 Sea of Okhotsk A0-A4 52.50145.00 Montgomery N53 Southern Africa -35.0025.00 Flament N54 Str of Gibraltar 36.00-5.60 Alpers N57 Strait of Sicily 37.1312.16 Montgomery N58 Tasman Sea -42.25144.75 Raney N60-64 WN Atlantic 0-4 51.50-43.50 Monaldo N65 North Atlantic 0 55.70-20.00 Keyte N66-70 Japan A0-A4 32.50135.50 Alpers N71-75 Japan B0-B4 44.00140.00 Alpers N76-80 Japan C0-C4 38.00134.00 Alpers N81-85 Japan D0-D4 44.50143.50 Alpers N86-90 Gulf Stream B0-B4 33.00-77.00 Montgomery N91-95 EN Atlantic 0-4 49.50-15.00 Keyte NB0-8 Equatorial Pacific 0-8 2.50-140.00 BSEqPac NBa-e North Sea A0-A4 54.755.00 BSNoSea NBf-j Labrador Sea A0-A4 48.50-52.50 BSLabSea NS0-4 Gulf Stream A0-A4 36.00-73.00 SSGulf NSA-X Southern Ocean 1-24 -58.500.00 SSSoOc NSf-k EN Atlantic A-F 47.00-20.60 SSAtlan NX1-9, NXA-E Equatorial Pacific Survey 1.48247.23 Targets of OpportunityT01 Ak Sipil 37.2580.17HolcombT03 Endere 37.86784.00 Holcomb T04 Karadong 38.61781.77 Holcomb 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