7#,O}GOt t v0v0v0v>wwwww.xxx*xw0x x/y^*yv0y^xmy^y^}4y^y^y^y^y^y^ MODULE 2 - HOW RADAR IMAGING WORKS B) HOW RADAR IS USED TO IMAGE THE EARTH Radar Objectives: 1. Students will learn what the word radar means and understand the idea of a radar echo. Radar stands for RAdio Detection and Ranging. A radar transmits microwave signals and measures the strength and time delay of the returned energy. The time delay, t, of the echo can be used to determine the range or distance ,R, to an object, since microwaves travel at the speed of light, c, and R = ct. Imagine you are standing in 'echo valley' and you shout the word 'radar' at the top of your voice. Then you hear an echo ('radar'). How loud is it? How long did it take for the echo to come back to you? These are the properties a radar measures: the strength of an electromagnetic wave can be compared with the loudness of a sound wave; the time delay is the same idea, except that sound waves travel at the speed of sound, not the speed of light. Radar Pulses Objectives: 1. Students will see a visual of a radar pulse and be able to describe the range of wavelengths (or frequencies) used for radar. 2. Students will be able to describe the duration of a radar pulse as being around 10 micro-seconds. Pulse Duration  A radar emits (or transmits) a parcel or packet of photons known as a pulse. The photons all have the same wavelength (or frequency), which will be in the range 1cm to 1m for radar. The pulse duration (length) is t which is typically around 10 micro-seconds. The transmitted pulse travels at the speed of light for the medium (3x108 m/s in a vacuum). The power level of the transmitted pulse is typically around 1 kilo-watt. Radar System Objectives: 1. Students will be introduced to the main components of radar systems. 2. Students will be able to draw and label the following their correct order: transmitter, circulator, antenna, radar pulse, receiver and data recorder or display. 3. Students will be able to define the purpose of each component.  In a simple radar system, the radar transmitter generates a high power radar pulse, which is fed to the circulator switch, which directs the transmitted pulse to the radar antenna. Radar antennas are constructed to transmit and receive pulses at particular radar wavelengths. On transmission, the antenna directs the transmitted pulse towards the target area. The energy reflected off the earth's surface comes back as a radar echo, which is then received by the antenna. When receiving, the circulator switch directs the returned echoes into the radar receiver, which converts the echoes to digital numbers. The radar data is then passed to the data recorder or display, which store the image data or display it on a screen. Note that the radar does not transmit and receive at the same time - the circulator switch is switched rapidly (say 1000 times a second) between the transmit position and the receive position. The switch also serves to protect the receiver from the high-power transmitted pulses, which could blow the receiver. Much like human vision, a radar system has a Source, a Scatterer, and an Observer. In a radar system, the radar antenna acts as both the Source and the Observer. Look at the diagram of the radar system. The first step in collecting radar images is for the antenna to emit a parcel or packet of photons known as a pulse. When the antenna is emitting a pulse of energy, it is referred to as a transmitter. Energy from this radar pulse that is reflected back, known as backscatter, is collected by the antenna. When the antenna is collecting backscatter, it is referred to as a receiver. An automatic "switch," known as the circulator, alternates the antenna between transmitter mode and receiver mode. The transmitter and the receiver can not operate at the same time because the energies being emitted and collected would interfere with each other. After the energy has gone from Source (Transmitter) to Scatterer (planet surface), and back to the Observer (Receiver), the receiver then converts this energy into digital information and sends it to the data recorder and displayer. This data is then used to produce a radar image of the target area. Radar Vision Objectives: 1. Students will know what happens to a radar pulse when it reaches the earth. 2. Students will be introduced to the term "backscatter". 3. Students will be able to associate the following words. Source-Radar, Scatterer-earth's surface, and Observation-Radar. When the radar transmits a pulse,  some of the energy in the radar pulse is reflected back towards the radar. This is what the radar measures. It is known as radar backscatter. The radar can not measure energy reflected in other directions.  A good analog for how a radar works is the flash camera. The flash camera transmits a pulse of (visible) light using the flash bulb, which also directs (or focuses) the pulse towards the subject (or target). The pulse of light is reflected off the subject and some of it is reflected back towards the camera. The shutter of the camera opens at a set time and serves as a circulator switch. The lens of the camera focuses the reflected light onto the film and serves as a receiver. The 'data' are recorded on the now exposed film, to be turned into an image later.The analogy of the flash camera could be taken further to image a 'swath' in the classroom, by moving the camera and taking several (overlapping) photographs, to simulate the way an imaging radar works. Radar Imaging Objectives: 1. Students will be able to determine the difference between an image that has a low backscatter from one with a high backscatter by looking at the brightness. 2. Students will view how the radar footprint moves to form an image in the area of the swath.  As the radar moves along its flight track, it images a swath along the ground. The schematic diagram above shows a satellite-borne radar looking out to the left and down as it flies along. The radar beam footprint is shown as a shaded ellipse. This footprint moves as the radar moves. As it moves along an image is built up of the area in the swath. Each pixel (picture element) in the radar image represents the radar backscatter for that area on the ground. Darker areas in the image represent low backscatter, while brighter areas in represent high backscatter. The area shown is San Francisco, with the Golden Gate bridge near the top of the picture, in the center. Synthetic Aperture Radar Objectives: 1. Students will learn what synthetic aperture radar means and how this technique is used to resolve fine detail. Some types of imaging radar are often referred to as Synthetic Aperture Radar's or SAR's for short. This refers to a technique used to synthesize a very long antenna by combining signals (echoes) received by the radar as it moves along a track. A long antenna is desirable since, the longer the antenna, the finer the detail the radar can resolve, and the smaller the objects the radar can 'see'. The synthetic aperture can be constructed by moving a real aperture or antenna to different positions. At each position a pulse is transmitted, then the return echoes pass through the receiver and are recorded in an 'echo store'.  Using the flashlight analogy, the bigger the reflecting bowl of the flashlight, the narrower the beam of light generated. For a flashlight the aperture is the reflecting bowl. Similarly, larger radar antennas will have finer beams. The beam width for an antenna (or aperture) of size D is ~l/D in radians, where l is the wavelength at which the antenna operates. For a 'real' antenna of length D, and a radar of wavelength l, imaging an object at range R, the smallest resolvable object is of size ~lR/D. For a 10m antenna, operating at 800 km range at wavelength 25 cm, this gives a minimum object size of 20 km. With a synthetic aperture of length 20km, a minimum object size of 5m can be resolved, since the resolution of a synthetic aperture is half the size of the actual antenna used, i.e. D/2. Synthetic aperture radar is a technique used to generate radar images in which fine detail can be resolved. To understand what a photograph means, we do not need to understand the process use to grind the lens; in the same way, it is not necessary to understand the synthetic aperture radar technique to understand what a radar image means. Radar Backscatter Measurements Objectives: 1. Students will be introduced to the measurements used by scientists who study radar backscatter - known as radar cross section or RCS. 2. Students will be introduced to typical values of RCS for natural surfaces. Radar scientists measure backscatter (also known as radar cross section or RCS) in units of area (i.e. square meters). The radar cross section of an object is often related to its actual size, as seen by the radar. For example, the RCS of a sphere is pr2, where r is the radius of the sphere. Calculating the backscatter for more complicated geometrical shapes is less straightforward. In fact, many radar engineers have spent their careers constructing mathematical models which can be used to predict radar cross section of an object. These models are used to design aircraft or missiles with the lowest possible radar cross section, so that they can not be detected by 'enemy' radars. For looking at the earth, radar scientists often use a measure called normalized radar cross section, s o, which is given by: s o = 10log10 (RCS/A) where A is the area of the image pixel The units for normalized radar cross section are decibel (dB), which is a kind of log scale. s o has the advantage for radar scientists that it is independent of the pixel size in the image data. Thus, s o measured for a corn field using an image with 100mx100m pixels would be the same as for an image with 10mx10m pixels. Example: for an object with an RCS of 10m2, and an image pixel size of 10mx10m, s o = -10dB. For an image pixel size of 100mx100m, the RCS would be 1000m2, since the normalized radar cross section, s o, is constant at -10dB. Typical values of s o for natural surfaces are from + 5dB to - 40 dB. + 5dB would correspond to a very bright feature in a radar image, and would mean that a very large fraction of the radar pulse energy is reflected back towards the radar. - 40 dB would be a very dark feature in a radar image, and would mean that very little of the energy in the radar pulse is reflected back towards the radar. Different Polarizations Objectives: 1. Students will be introduced to the terms used in the measurement of backscatter using different polarizations. 2. Students will be able to describe the different measurements. 3. Students will be able to see the different measurements on the computer. With the capability to use different polarizations on transmit and receive, we can measure the normalized radar cross section for combinations of polarizations: sHHo - Horizontal transmit, Horizontal receive sVVo - Vertical transmit, Vertical receive sHVo - Horizontal transmit, Vertical receive fHHVV - Phase difference between HH and VV measurements rHHVV - Correlation between HH and VV measurements When we transmit a radar pulse and look at the reflected echo, we can measure the phase of the return as well as its amplitude. The phase is related to the time it takes for the pulse to go out and back. Every time the pulse travels a distance of one wavelength, the phase changes by 2p (look at a sine wave to see this for yourself). In radar, the phase difference between the HH and VV returns is often significant, as will be seen later. The phase difference can be thought of as a difference in round-trip time for the HH and VV returns. The phase difference,fHHVV, is measured in degrees (i.e. not dB) and is therefore a number between -180 and +180 degrees. Another significant parameter is the correlation coefficient, rHHVV, between the HH and VV returns. It is a measure of how alike the HH and VV scatterers are, and is given as a number between 0 and 1, or as a percentage (0 to 100%). rHHVV = 0 means the HH and VV scatterers are completely different. rHHVV = 1 means the HH and VV scatterers are the same. Values in between 0 and 1 mean that there is a mixture of identical and different HH and VV scatterers. Images of each of the different polarization measurements can be displayed using the program Macsigma0. This can be demonstrated with any of the AIRSAR images (Filename.stk files) provided. After selecting an AIRSAR image for display, the various polarizations come up on a menu for selection. Once a selection has been made, and an image displayed, select an area with the mouse. Then execute the Mean and Std Dev option under the Statistics menu to display the mean values for the polarization measurements listed above for the selected area. What Changes Radar Backscatter? Objectives: 1. Students will be able to describe how backscatter can change through the use of a different polarization, frequency, time of observation or observation angle. 2. Students will be able to explain two advantages to using radar in monitoring change over time on the earth. For example deforestation and urban growth. 3. Students will be able to give an example of what a long wavelength would be sensitive to. For example a tree trunk. Backscatter can change if we use a different polarization, frequency, time of observation, or observation angle. Different polarizations can often be used to distinguish between different types of scattering, as will be seen later. For example, smooth surfaces, rough surfaces and vegetation layers all give different signatures if the various polarizations are examined. Using different frequencies can often give sensitivity to different sizes of structure. For example, when looking at a forest, the radar cross section at shorter wavelengths, e.g. C-band (6cm), would be sensitive to the leaves at the top of the canopy. Longer wavelengths, e.g. L-band (24cm), would be sensitive to the branches, and very long wavelengths, e.g. P-band (68cm), would be sensitive to the trunks of the trees. Because radar sensors can always acquire an image, independent of cloud cover or whether it is day or night, they are very useful in monitoring change over time. When looking at the earth's surface, radar images are sensitive to changes in structure and in water content. For example, changes in ocean wave direction, crop growth, harvesting, deforestation, leaf state (on or off), are all structural changes that have been noted in radar images. Urban growth should also be very easy to detect in radar images. Frozen versus thawed trees, dry versus wet vegetation, dry versus wet snow and dry versus wet soil are all examples of moisture content changes that have been observed in radar images. Different Observation Angles Radar backscatter can also change with observation angle. There are two angles to consider. The first is the track angle (angle of radar track compared to True North), which is shown below: i) Track Angle  Man-made features, such as urban areas and fences, terrain with significant height variation, crops with strong row directions, ocean waves all demonstrate strong dependence on track angle in their radar backscatter behavior. Natural vegetation in relatively flat areas does not, since it tends to grow equally in all directions. The second angle is the incidence angle (angle of radar wave at earth's surface, compared with local vertical). Most types of scatterers show significant variation in backscatter versus incidence angle. If the radar is pointing in a direction at right angles to the surface (e.g. straight down for a flat surface, with qi = 0), the backscatter will be very strong. As the incidence angle increases, generally the backscatter will decrease. ii) Incidence Angle  Note that by Pythagoras cos(q i) = h / R, where h is the height of the spacecraft and R is the distance from the radar to the object (the range ) . How Do Scientists Use Imaging Radar Data? Objectives: 1. Students will be able to explain how radar backscatter can be used to describe a surface. 2. Students will be able to explain why images appear dark or light. 3. Students will be introduced to how scientists interpret the measurements of the surface being imaged. Imaging radars operate by transmitting a series of radar pulses, then measuring the strength of the returned echo. They measure radar backscatter, which can be thought of as the amount of pulse energy reflected back towards the radar by an object. A radar image, then, is a two-dimensional representation of the radar backscatter of the surface being imaged. The question is, how to interpret the measurements? Radar backscatter is primarily a function of the physical structure of the surface being imaged. This means that backscatter changes as the surface topography (relief) and roughness vary across the target area. Radar backscatter is also sensitive to the electrical properties of the target area. Surface Roughness: A useful rule-of-thumb in analyzing radar images is that the higher or brighter the backscatter on the image, the rougher the surface being imaged. Surfaces inclined towards the radar will have a stronger backscatter than surfaces which slope away from the radar, e.g.  If a radar is pointing almost straight down towards the target surface then it will reflect strongly because more surface area will be "exposed" to the radar beam and the backscatter will be high. Man-made objects, such a bridges, buildings and fences can appear very bright in a radar image when viewed from the correct angle. Surface Electrical Properties: On earth, the electrical properties of a surface are often a strong function of the liquid water content of the surface materials. In general, backscatter strength increases with the moisture content of the surface material. The exception to this is bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, and oceans which, if the surface is very smooth, give very low backscatter. Only if the water surface is disturbed due to surface winds or waves will the backscatter be high. Vegetation contains a great deal of liquid water and often have complicated geometrical structure think of the "patterns" formed by trunks, branches and leaves. As a result, vegetation will usually give higher backscatter than the surrounding soil. Of all vegetation types, forests tend to give the highest backscatter, with flooded forests, such as swamps, giving even higher values. Backscatter In Radar Images Objectives: 1. Students will be able to list two examples of four classifications of backscatter. 2. Students will be able to give the approximate dB range for each group. Here is a summary, indicating potential explanations for high and low backscatter in a radar image: Backscatter range Possible Explanation Very high backscatter - Terrain slopes towards radar (above -5dB) - Radar looking almost straight down - Very rough surface - Flooded forest - Man-made objects High backscatter - Rough surface (-10 to 0dB) - Dense vegetation, e.g. forest Moderate backscatter - Moderately rough surface (-20 to -10dB) - Medium level of vegetation, e.g. shrubs, agricultural crops Low backscatter - Terrain slopes away from radar (below -20dB) - Smooth surface, e.g. water, road surface - Very dry material, e.g. sand in an arid desert These are, of course, just rules-of-thumb, to which many exceptions are possible and have been found by scientists analyzing radar image data. 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