7#,/['.\     .    0LL^xT /*7 %m4 MODULE 2 - HOW RADAR IMAGING WORKS A) BASIC ELECTROMAGNETICS Objectives: 1. Students will identify three features of an electromagnetic wave. 2. Students will understand the analogy between radar systems and human vision. 3. Students will identify the source, scatterer, and observer in various sensing systems. 4. Students will learn what an image swath is. In this section, some basic concepts of electromagnetics are reviewed. The purpose is to introduce the student to some ideas about light waves which can help him or her understand how a radar works. Understanding how simple things like how light is generated, or how a flashlight or a flash camera works can help in understanding how a radar image is constructed. This is not meant to be a complete introduction to the theory of light and how it works. Electromagnetic Waves Wave Diagram  V = voltage of electromagnetic wave x = distance A = amplitude of electromagnetic wave l = wavelength Since photons travel at the speed of light (c), the distance a photon travels (x) equals speed (c) x time (t), or x = ct. The voltage of an electromagnetic wave is described by the following equation: V(x) = Asin(2px/l) = Asin(2pct/l) The wavelength and frequency are related by f = l/c. The best way to understand the Electromagnetic Spectrum is to understand the composition of its most primary component: the electromagnetic wave. All the different kinds of electromagnetic energy -- radio waves, television waves, radar waves, light waves, infrared waves, ultraviolet waves, x-rays, gamma-rays, etc. -- are made of the same type of basic wave. This wave has three features: the photon, the wavelength and frequency of the wave in which the photon travels, and the amplitude of the wave in which the photon travels. The photon itself is simply a particle of energy traveling at the speed of light. A substance will emit photons when its energy level increases. This can happen through several means: chemical reaction (e.g. fire); nuclear reaction (e.g. solar radiation); an increase in temperature (e.g. hot metal); or the presence of an electric current (e.g. a light bulb or toaster element). Photons are found in each type of radiation. The characteristics that differentiate one kind of electromagnetic energy from another are the frequency and wavelength of the wave in which the photon travels. The frequency of a wave is the number of times the crest of a given wave passes a point in one second. Frequency is measured in hertz. One hertz means a frequency of one wave per second. Standard radio waves have a frequency of between 100,000 and 1,000,000 hertz. In comparison, visible light waves have frequencies between 100,000,000,000,000 and 1,000,000,000,000,000 hertz. The higher the frequency of a wave, the shorter its wavelength. Wavelength is the distance between the crests or troughs of two consecutive waves. Radio waves can have wavelengths of anywhere from 3 millimeters to 30 kilometers. Light waves on the other hand have wavelengths of between 0.4 and 0.7 microns (10-6 meter). The frequency and wavelength are inversely related. Therefore, radio waves have a lower frequency (fewer radio waves pass a given point in one second) than light waves, while at the same time having a much larger distance between the crests of each wave. It makes sense that if a wave has a greater wavelength, and all waves travel at the same speed, fewer waves will pass a given point in one second. Not only can you identify a certain kind of energy by its frequency and wavelength, but these characteristics also effect a wave's tendencies. Waves with long wavelengths are not easily absorbed. Radio waves are classic examples of waves with long wavelength. On the other hand small wavelength waves are absorbed quite readily. Because they can pass through matter so easily, short wavelength waves are considered more dangerous to humans. X-rays, gamma-rays, and ultraviolet waves can all cause cancer if you are overexposed to them. This is because they are able to penetrate the cells in your body and can cause damage to their structures. Finally, the amplitude of a wave determines its strength. The best analogy for this is an ocean wave. The larger the wave, the more energy it has. A change in amplitude has no effect on the frequency or wavelength. Changes in amplitude account for a weak or strong radio signal or for bright and dim lights of the same color. The Electromagnetic Spectrum  1 nm = 1 nanometer or 0.0000000001 meters 1 mm = 1 micrometer or 0.0000001 meters 1 cm = 1 centimeter or 0.01 meters 1 Hz = 1 Hertz or one cycle per second 1 GHz = 1 GHz or 1,000,000,000 cycles per second Polarization Objectives: 1. Students will be introduced to the idea of polarization of electromagnetic waves. 2. Students will understand the idea of polarization screening. So far, we have learnt that electromagnetic waves can travel in a given direction, and that they have a given amplitude and wavelength. Another important property of electromagnetic waves is their polarization. Polarization is the term used to describe the way in which the electromagnetic wave oscillates as it travels along. For example, a vertically polarized wave will oscillate up and down as it moves forward; a horizontally polarized wave will oscillate from side to side. These two polarizations are illustrated below:  Other types of polarization are possible, for example circular polarization in which the wave oscillates in a circle as it moves along (like a slinky or a spring). In general, polarization is described by an ellipse. We shall mostly concern ourselves with horizontal and vertical polarizations here. It is possible to screen different polarizations, using a screen of very thin lines arranged either vertically or horizontally. A screen of closely spaced vertical lines will allow a vertically polarized wave to pass through, but horizontally polarized waves will bounce off it. This is the principle which is used in polarized sunglasses to reduce the amount of light entering the human eye. Polarization screening is illustrated below:  To demonstrate the idea of polarization screening in the classroom, get an old pair of polarized sunglasses and take the lenses out. Look through th lenses one by one to see how they reduce the amount of light passing through, then put the lenses on top of each other and look through both together. Rotate one lens by 90 degrees and the light passing through the two screens should be zero (i.e. you should see nothing). This is because both horizontal and vertical components of the light have been screened out. Human Vision  1. Source (Sun) emits light at a given frequency as a continuous stream of photons 2. Scatterer (earth) reflects light in all directions 3. Observer (eye) receives light from scatterer Radar is similar to human sight. Both kinds of sensing make use of electromagnetic waves and their properties. Human vision uses the segment of the electromagnetic spectrum known as visible light. Visible light is comprised of the electromagnetic energy that is perceived by us as colors. These waves have a wavelength of 0.4 to 0.7 microns and a frequency of between 1014 hertz and 1015 hertz. Radar is simply another type of electromagnetic energy. The only difference is that radar waves have much larger wavelengths and a much lower frequency. Despite this difference, radio and light waves behave much the same way. As shown in the diagram, human vision is dependent on a Source of energy, a Scatterer, and an Observer. In the diagram, the sun acts as the source and emits light waves. These light waves, and all other electromagnetic waves, are made of photons. These photons travel until they hit matter. Depending on the density and composition of the substance, the photons will do one of three things. The first possibility is that some or all of the photon's energy can be absorbed by the substance it impacts. Black substances appear black because they absorb all the energy of the visible light spectrum. Since all the energy is being absorbed, no light energy is reflected off the given substance and it appears void of color, or black. This also explains why black tar, black clothing, or any black substance gets especially warm when left in the sun. The electromagnetic energy is being absorbed and converted to heat energy. Another possiblity is for the energy to pass through the substance and be refracted. This is what happens when you look through a magnifying glass or when you look at a friend through a glass of water and his or her image is distorted. The photons are being bent or redirected as they pass through the atoms and molecules of the given substance. This bending of the wave causes a distortion of the image. A final possibility is that the photons can be reflected. Most things we see, we see because of reflection. For example, we see leaves as green because they contain a chemical (chlorophyll) which reflects green light and absorbs other colors in the visible light spectrum. The sun emits energy in the form of photons. Some of these photons travel at a wavelength and frequency known as the visible light spectrum. Traditionally, these are referred to as light waves. This is the only segment of the electromagnetic spectrum that humans can see with the naked eye. These photons then travel to Earth and are absorbed, refracted or reflected. Any object that reflects photons is known as a scatterer. In the diagram, the ground is the scatterer. The photons which are reflected by the scatterer impact our eyes and are converted to electrical impulses. These electrical impulses are then sent to our brain and interpreted as vision. The mechanism which receives or collects the energy from the scatterer is known as the observer. In the vision diagram, the human eye is the observer. The process of vision requires three primary components: 1) a Source that emits energy, 2) a Scatterer that reflects some of that energy 3) and an Observer which receives and collects the energy of the photons after they impact the scatterer. These same basic components are needed for a radar system. Focusing Light The sun radiates or emits light equally in all directions. It is an example of an isotropic radiator.  With a flashlight, light generated by the bulb reflects off the silvered concave part and is focussed towards the object to be illuminated. This is an example of a non-isotropic radiator.  The area illuminated by the flashlight is called its footprint.  Once again, how radar works can be understood by examining light--in this case, a flashlight. Substances that emit light often do so through isotropic radiation. However, it is often valuable and necessary to focus all this energy in one direction. This is what occurs in a flashlight. By focusing this energy, more energy can be shed in specific areas. In the case of a flashlight, the focused light energy can illuminate a given area more powerfully. The area that receives the focused energy is known as the footprint. Radars focus radar energy in much the same way. By focusing isotropic radar energy, more powerful pulses of photons can be beamed at the target area. The focused energy covers a footprint much like that of a flashlight being shown across a wall. The radar then collects the reflected energy and interprets the data. This data is used to create radar images. The path of the radar footprint is known as a swath. 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